Sla Theories Essays

Sla Theories Essays Sla Theories Essay Sla Theories Essay Theorists place different values on the role of interaction in second language acquisition (SLA). Krashen’s (1985, 1994) theory became a predominant influence in both second language teaching practice and later theories. Krashen postulates that SLA is determined by the amount of comprehensible input, that is, one-way input in the second language that is both understandable and at the level just beyond the current linguistic competence of learners. Similar to Vygotsky’s â€Å"zone of proximal development† (1962), Krashen’s scaffolding theory is referred to as i+1. Viewed as an innatist perspective, this theory maintains that a second language is acquired unconsciously in a manner similar to the acquisition of a first language. According to Krashen (1996), acquiring language is predicated upon the concept of receiving messages learners can understand (1996). Teachers can make language input comprehensible through a variety of strategies, such as linguistic simplification, and the use of realia, visuals, pictures, graphic organizers, and other current ESOL strategies. While Krashen (1994) believes that only one-way comprehensible input is required for SLA, others take an interactionist position acknowledging the role of two-way communication. Pica (1994), Long (1985), and others assert that conversational interaction facilitates SLA under certain conditions. According to Lightbrown and Spada (1999), â€Å"When learners are given the opportunity to engage in meaningful activities they are compelled to ‘negotiate for meaning,’ that is, to express and clarify their intentions, thoughts, opinions, etc. in a way which permits them to arrive at a mutual understanding. This is especially true when the learners are working together to accomplish a particular goal . . . â€Å"(p. 122). Pica (1994) goes on to say that negotiation is defined as â€Å"modification and restructuring that occurs when learners and their interlocutors anticipate, perceive, or experience difficulties in message comprehensibility† (p. 495). A variety of modifications, which may involve linguistic simplification as well as conversational modifications such as repetition, clarification, and conformation checks, may be used to gain understanding. The interaction hypothesis of Long and Robinson (as cited in Blake, 2000) suggests that when meaning is negotiated, input comprehensibility is usually increased and learners tend to focus on salient linguistic features. Cognizance of these language forms and structures is seen as beneficial to SLA. Other nteractionist theorists apply Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory of human mental processing to define the role of interaction in SLA (Lightbrown and Spada, 1999) and hypothesize that second language learners gain proficiency when they interact with more advanced speakers of the language, for example, teachers and peers. Scaffolding structures such as modeling, repetition, and linguistic simplification used by more proficient speakers are believed to provide support to learner s, thus enabling them to function within their zones of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1962). Although theorists adhering to interactionist thought consider both input to, and input from, the learner as important, output is often viewed as secondary. However, Swain (1995) in her â€Å"comprehensible output hypothesis† asserts that output is also critical and hypothesizes that it serves four primary functions in SLA: 1) enhances fluency; 2) creates awareness of language knowledge gaps; 3) provides opportunities to experiment with language forms and structures; and 4) obtains feedback from others about language use. Comprehensible output assists learners in conveying meaning while providing linguistic challenges; that is, â€Å". . . in producing the L2 (the second, or target language), a learner will on occasion become aware of (i. e. , notice) a linguistic problem (brought to his/ her attention either by external feedback or internal feedback). Noticing a problem ‘pushes’ the learner to modify his/ her output. In doing so, the learner may sometimes be forced into a more syntactic processing mode than might occur in comprehension† (Swain and Lapkin in Chapelle, 1997, p. b). From this perspective, comprehensible output plays an important role in interaction. In summary, interactionists elaborate upon the innatist notion of comprehensible input explaining that interaction, constructed via exchanges of comprehensible input and output, has at least an enhancing effect when meaning is negotiated and support structures are used. Based on this premise, distance second language lear ning courses should be designed to provide interaction that includes negotiation of meaning where comprehensible output results from input.

ACT Test and Registration Dates for 2018 - 2019

ACT Test and Registration Dates for 2018 - 2019 For the 2018-19 admissions cycle, U.S. students have seven ACT testing dates from which to choose. The exam is offered in September, October, December, February, April, June, and July. The July option is new in 2018. Registration deadlines are roughly five weeks before the exam, so be sure to plan ahead. When Is the ACT in the United States? For the 2018  - 19  academic year, the ACT test dates and registration deadlines are presented in the table below. Important ACT Dates -   2018-19 Test Date Registration Deadline Late Registration Deadline June 9, 2018 May 4, 2018 May 20, 2018 July 14, 2018 June 15, 2018 June 22, 2018 September 9, 2018 August 10, 2018 August 26, 2018 October 27, 2018 September 28, 2018 October 14, 2018 December 8, 2018 November 2, 2018 November 19, 2018 February 9, 2019 January 11, 2019 January 18, 2019 April 13, 2019 March 8, 2019 March 25, 2019 June 8, 2019 May 3, 2019 May 20, 2019 July 13, 2019 June 14, 2019 June 24, 2019 Note that the February and July ACT is not offered in New York State. In California, no test centers are scheduled for July. International test dates are generally the same as those in the United States, but options may be limited. When Is the ACT Offered Outside of the United States? If youre taking the ACT outside of the United States, Canada, Puerto Rico, or U.S. territories, you should register online for the exam. The test dates are the same as for the United States with the exception of February when the exam is not offered at international test locations. There is a $57.50  fee for international testing and late registration is not available. Is the ACT Always on a Saturday? The ACT test dates, like the SAT test dates, are on select Saturdays throughout the year. For some students, however, religious convictions make Saturday testing impossible. For these cases, the ACT is offered at a limited number of testing locations on Sundays. Youll be able to locate these Sunday test centers on the ACT website when you register for the exam.   It is also possible to apply for arranged testing  if there is no Sunday test center near you, you live in a country where the ACT is not offered, or if you are confined to a correctional facility on all of the test dates. Note that non-Saturday testing is not an option for the great majority of high school students, and you should make every effort to sit for the ACT during one of the Saturday exam administrations Is the ACT Offered Near Me? On the ACT website, youll find a tool for finding your nearest test center. The great majority of students should be able to find a test center within an hour of home, and you may even find that your own high school is a test center. Some rural students, however, may find that the exam will require a bit more travel. The situation can be even more challenging for international students. Some countries have just one or two test centers, and a few countries have none at all. Some international students may need to travel long distances or to other countries in order to take the exam. How Does ACT Test Registration Work? To register for the ACT, youll need to create an online account on the ACT website. The process can take about 40 minutes because the registration form will ask you about your personal information, interests, and high school course details. Youll also need to locate the test center where you want to take the exam, and youll need to have a credit card or other form of payment handy to pay the registration fees. Finally, youll need to provide a headshot photo for your registration ticket. This is a security measure to ensure that the person taking the exam is the same person who registered for the exam.   When Is the Best Time to Take the ACT? When you take the ACT is entirely up to you, but some exam strategies work better than others. Because the ACT is an achievement test (rather than an aptitude test), it asks you about information you have learned in high school. The result is that taking the exam in 9th or 10th grade may not be the best idea for the simple reason that you probably havent yet covered all of the material that will appear on the exam. One of the common approaches to the ACT is to take the exam in the second half of your junior year (February, April, May, or June). If you dont get good ACT scores from that test, you have time to prepare further and then retake the exam at the beginning of your senior year (July, September, or October). Be careful with the December test date: youll want to make sure the scores will be available in time to meet all of your application deadlines. It is always an option to take the ACT more than twice, but doing so shouldnt be necessary for the great majority of students. In many cases, in fact, a single testing in the spring of junior year can be more than adequate if you find your scores are in line with your target schools. What Does It Cost to Register for the ACT? At the time of registration, you will need to pay the fees for the ACT. The current fees for some of the most popular exam services are as follows: $46.00 for the basic ACT. This fee includes score results for the student, the students school, and four colleges$62.50 for the ACT with Writing$29.50  additional fee if you register late$53.00  additional fee if you register for standby testing (after the late registration deadline)$13  for additional score reports As you plan your college budget, be sure to keep these costs in mind. College expenses arent just about tuition, room, and board. Applying to college is also expensive, and standardized tests are a big part of that cost. If you take the ACT twice and need to send score reports to a dozen colleges, your ACT costs will most likely be several hundred dollars. The good news is that fee waivers are available for qualifying students from low income families. A Final Word About ACT Test Dates and Registration For better or worse, standardized tests are an important part of the college application process. Even if you are applying to test-optional colleges, you may need to take either the ACT or SAT to qualify for scholarships, to be placed into the appropriate classes, or to meet NCAA requirements for athletic participation.   Finally, dont put off thinking about the ACT. Youll want to carefully plan when you take the exam, and youll also need to plan ahead so that you dont miss registration deadlines.

Medieval Food Preservation Methods

Medieval Food Preservation Methods For centuries before the medieval period, and for centuries afterward, human beings in all parts of the world used a variety of methods to preserve foods for later consumption. Europeans in the Middle Ages were no exception. A society that was largely agrarian would be keenly aware of the need to store up provisions against the ominous threats of famine, drought, and warfare. The possibility of disaster wasnt the only motive for preserving food. Dried, smoked, pickled, honeyed, and salted foods had their own particular flavors, and many recipes survive detailing how to prepare foods that have been stored with these methods. Preserved foods were also much easier for the sailor, soldier, merchant, or pilgrim to transport. For fruits and vegetables to be enjoyed out of season, they had to be preserved; and in some regions, a particular foodstuff could only be enjoyed in its preserved form, because it didnt grow (or wasnt raised) nearby. Virtually any kind of food could be preserved. How it was done depended on what type of food it was and whether a particular effect was desired. Here are some of the methods of food preservation used in medieval Europe. Drying Foods to Preserve Them Today we understand that moisture allows for the rapid microbiological growth of bacteria, which is present in all fresh foods and which causes them to decay. But it isnt necessary to understand the chemical process involved in order to observe that food that is wet and left in the open will quickly start to smell and attract bugs. So it should come as no surprise that one of the oldest methods of preserving foods known to man is that of drying it. Drying was used to preserve all sorts of foods. Grains like rye and wheat were dried in the sun or air before being stored in a dry place. Fruits were sun-dried in warmer climes and oven-dried in cooler regions. In Scandinavia, where temperatures were known to plunge below freezing in the winter, cod (known as stockfish) were left out to dry in the cold air, usually after they were gutted and their heads were removed. Meat could also be preserved through drying, usually after cutting it into thin strips and lightly salting it. In warmer regions, it was a simple matter to dry meat under the hot summer sun, but in cooler climates, air drying could be done at most times of the year, either outdoors or in shelters that kept away the elements and flies. Preserving Foods With Salt Salting was the most common way to preserve virtually any type of meat or fish, as it drew out the moisture and killed the bacteria. Vegetables might be preserved with dry salt, as well, though pickling was more common. Salt was also used in conjunction with other methods of preservation, such as drying and smoking. One method of salting meat involved pressing dry salt into pieces of meat, then layering the pieces in a container (like a keg) with dry salt completely surrounding each piece. If meat was preserved this way in cold weather, which slowed down the decomposition while the salt had time to take effect, it could last for years. Vegetables were also preserved by layering them in salt and placing them in a sealable container such as an earthenware crock. Another way to preserve food with salt was to soak it in a salt brine. While not as effective a long-term method of preservation as packing in dry salt, it served very well to keep food edible through a season or two. Salt brines were also part of the pickling process. Whatever method of salt preservation was used, the first thing a cook did when he got ready to prepare the salted food for consumption was soaking it in fresh water to remove as much of the salt as possible. Some cooks were more conscientious than others when it came to this step, which could take several trips to the well for fresh water. And it was next to impossible to remove all the salt, no matter how much soaking was done. Many recipes took this saltiness into account, and some were designed specifically to counteract or complement the salt flavor. Still, most of us would find preserved medieval food much saltier than anything were used to today. Smoking Meat and Fish Smoking was another fairly common way to preserve meat, especially fish and pork. Meat would be cut into relatively thin, lean strips, immersed briefly in a salt solution  and hung over a fire to absorb the smoke flavoring as it dried - slowly. Occasionally meat might be smoked without a salt solution, especially if the type of wood burned had a distinctive flavoring of its own. However, salt was still very helpful because it discouraged flies, inhibited the growth of bacteria, and hastened the removal of moisture. Pickling Foods Immersing fresh vegetables and other foods in a liquid solution of salt brine was a fairly common practice in medieval Europe. In fact, although the term pickle didnt come into use in English until the late Middle Ages, the practice of pickling goes back to ancient times. Not only would this method preserve fresh food for months so that it could be eaten out of season, but it could infuse it with strong, piquant flavors. The simplest pickling was done with water, salt and an herb or two, but a variety of spices and herbs as well as the use of vinegar, verjuice or (after the 12th century) lemon led to a range of pickling flavors. Pickling might require boiling the foods in the salt mixture, but it could also be done by simply leaving the food items in an open pot, tub or vat of salt brine with the desired flavorings for hours and sometimes days. Once the food had been thoroughly infused by the pickling solution, it was placed in a jar, crock, or another airtight container, sometimes with a fresh brine but often in the juice in which it had marinated. Confits Although the term confit has come to refer to virtually any food that has been immersed in a substance for preservation (and, today, can sometimes refer to a type of fruit preserve), in the Middle Ages confits were potted meat. Confits were most usually, but not solely, made from fowl or pork (fatty fowl like goose were particularly suitable). To make a confit, the meat was salted and cooked for a very long time in its own fat, then allowed to cool in its own fat. It was then sealed up in its own fat, of course and stored in a cool place, where it could last for months. Confits should not be confused with comfits, which were sugar-coated nuts and seeds eaten at the end of a banquet to freshen the breath and aid the digestion. Sweet Preserves Fruits were often dried, but a far more tasty method of preserving them past their season was to seal them up in honey. Occasionally, they might be boiled in a sugar mixture, but sugar was an expensive import, so only the cooks of the wealthiest families were likely to use it. Honey had been used as a preservative for thousands of years, and it wasnt limited to preserving fruit; meats were also stored in honey on occasion. Fermentation Most methods of preserving food involved stopping or slowing down the process of decay. Fermentation accelerated it. The most common product of fermentation was alcohol wine was fermented from grapes, mead from honey, beer from grain. Wine and mead could keep for months, but beer had to be drunk fairly quickly. Cider was fermented from apples, and the Anglo-Saxons made a drink called perry from fermented pears. Cheese is also a product of fermentation. Cows milk could be used, but the milk from sheep and goats was a more common source for cheese in the Middle Ages. Freezing and Cooling The weather of the greater part of Europe throughout much of the Middle Ages was rather temperate; in fact, there is often some discussion of the medieval warm period overlapping the end of the Early Middle Ages and the beginning of High Medieval Europe (the exact dates depend on who you consult). So freezing was not an obvious method of preserving foods. However, most areas of Europe did see snowy winters, and freezing was at times a viable option, especially in northern regions. In castles and large homes with cellars, an underground room could be used to keep foods packed in winter ice through the cooler spring months and into the summer. In the long, frigid Scandinavian winters, an underground room wasnt necessary. Supplying an ice-room with ice was a labor-intensive and sometimes travel-intensive business, so it was not particularly common; but it wasnt completely unknown, either. More common was the use of underground rooms to keep foods cool, the all-important last step of most of the above preservation methods.

International Scholarship Candidates Selection Essay

International Scholarship Candidates Selection - Essay Example Further, RasGas may choose candidates who will fail to complete their chosen educational programs and create a sunk cost loss for RasGas. The use of an objective rating scale linked to organizational goals and future performance can limit these potential losses and increase the chances of securing productive employees post graduation. In order to create a winning proposition, one of the focus areas for RasGas is the 'development of its employees and the organisation', which can only be realized when the company is in a position to objectively rate the performances. Motivational factors arouse a need, propelling a person to channelise his efforts and energies in the direction of fulfilling those needs. These needs are aroused in the employee of an organization to increase the output, provide quality, increase efficiency, maintain industrial peace etc. An effective management must understand the fact that there are at least two ways by which the behavior of employees could be directed towards the productive pursuits in the organization. One is by changing the personality, i.e. the internal psychological structures of the person, which is a long-drawn and uncertain process. Another strategy is to modify the characteristics of the situation prevailing around the employees. These situational factors have tremendous influence in shaping one's personality. Providing suitable ambience and opportunities for career development and education hold the key in setting the process in motion. 2. Aim: To design a Success Predictability Scale for scholarship candidates Objectives: Analysis of the present policies of RasGas to encourage the talent. Analysis of the levels of motivation and urge for pursuing higher studies amongst the existing staff by conducting interviews and by observing them on the job. Analysis of the internal reports and other data about RasGas available in the public domain. Establishing a documentary link between scholarship awards and degree fields that supports the long-term goals and objectives of the organization. 3. Benefits to the Organization: The benefits to RasGas for using an objective success potential scale linked to organizational objectives for scholarship candidates are: Enhance the reward potential of opportunity costs associated with a scholarship candidate. Lower potential and actual economic losses associated with the scholarship program. Increase the chances of successful degree completion by scholarship candidates. Saving of as much as $500,000 US on candidates who are less likely to complete their assigned programs and make contributions to the organization that exceed the organization's investment in their education. Motivated employees, who in turn help the company more efficient and competitive. Motivation and encouragement leads to lesser attrition rates and turnover ratios, which in turn saves lots of costs associated with recruiting a team of new person time and time again. RasGas considers its workforce as one of its greatest assets and with people from over 36 different nationalities working together within the organisation, encouraging career development

The Origins of First World War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

The Origins of First World War - Essay Example Though, taking a retrospective look, James Joll (1984), argued in his book The Origins of the First World War, that German rulers had 'accepted the war as inevitable' by December 1912 itself. But the Germans preferred to wait for the most opportune time. Historians also say that the imperialistic policies of some European nations also contributed to the simmering discontent amongst other nations. Some countries had highly ambitious plans of establishing their colonies in foreign lands. Similarly, some countries had started arming themselves in a big way, which left the neighboring countries apprehensive for their safety and asking for cover for other nations. This polarized the world community. Therefore militarism was another reason for the outbreak of war. Slav nationalism never allowed the Austrians and Russians a peaceful coexistence. The sea route was earlier used basically for exploring far off places, but Britain and Germany also started using the naval forces for strategic ad vantages. Another race started in the two blocks to strengthen the naval forces. Though earlier the use of James Joll (1984) argues that; "The immediate motives which led governments to decide to go to war in 1914 were not directly imperialist, but earlier imperialist policies had contributed to the frame of mind in which decisions were taken. ... Evans and Strandmann (1990) say that apparently the war started off a clear sky, but most of the nations seem to be well prepared for the war. The authors state that, "Everyone seems to have known exactly what to do, and to have done it with great efficiency. Arrangements to take over the Examination Schools and colleges had been made by the War Office two years earlier." Though historians find it very difficult to pinpoint one particular event or one particular day when the war trigger was put on. But the events of June 28, 1914 are still remembered as a turning point (Turner, 1970). It is on this day that, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to throne of Austria-Hungary, and his wife were assassinated (it was their wedding anniversary) in Sarajevo, Bosnia by a Serbian nationalist student. This province had been under Austro-Hungarian Empire since 1908. After this assassination, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, followed by the Russian Mobilization the next day. Increasing emphasis on militarism led to the development of new weapons. Simultaneously the emergence of trench warfare made the Great War the bloodiest conflict the world had known (The Birmingham Post, 2004) James Joll prefer to place imperialism, domestic concerns, and the failure of diplomats as the basic reasons for eruption of the full fledged war. In broader terms the origin of First World War can be traced back as the result of a number of reasons. Some such reasons, enlisted by historians, over time are; The rise of German power after 1870 and its Imperialistic designs: Germany used to be a loose confederation of independent states till 1870. On January 18, 1871, these states united under a Prussian king

Ethics and Reality Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Ethics and Reality - Case Study Example Reality says, brother is also young and to lead whole life with one kidney is a great risk. The patient is only 19 years of age, considering the age criterion; it is the prime responsibility of the physician to save her life. Under these circumstances, when there was not any choice of the therapy, a ray of hope came from GENOTECH. Situations like this has paved the way for breakthroughs in research and therefore more biotechnology companies are coming forward for reawakening of interest in xenotransplantation. The spotlight of ethical consideration has been altered from the moral accuracy of using animals for research/ therapy to treasured risk of xenozoonoses in recipients. This is not well accepted so far. The restriction has been posed by the United Kingdom on clinical trials and a national regulatory authority has been established to supervise and organize the progress of research, create guidelines, and make a decision on when trials can proceed. On the contrary, the United States has promoted the research in the direction of "proceed with caution," and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has given approval for a large number of xenotransplant studies. The Public Health Service guidelines laid down strategies to reduce infection risk and these guidelines are still underway and are evolving to wind up with cautious approach (Daar, 1997). In the present case, the GENOTECH has emerged as a helping hand to this family. The patient cannot be allowed for euthanasia to spare the suffering of the patient or her family. The family must take the risk of transplanting GENOTECH'S product for transplanting kidney. There are chances that infections may spread from the recipient to contacts and later to the public. It is of much concern to the whole human population and not the patient alone. It is therefore imperative that the company must go through the rigorous checking of the product for any kind of microbial infection before the transplantation is made in order to protect the disaster. The motive in the present scenario is therapy, but practically performing is different, moreover laboratory conditions are different than in reality, inside the human body. So areas of concern are animal issues and risk of infection, but the success of this transplantation will renovate transplantation ethics to reality. There has to be some initiative for the success of technology. For these new technologies it has been hypothesized that they are going to eliminate the clinical and immunological obstacles which have made transplantation an excessively expensive therapeutic venture. Optimism inspires us but when it results in defeat it tempers our hopes and also the reality (Platt, 2001). Therefore we have to check the technology for its fool proof results. The alternative to the present situation is long-term dialysis. References: Darr, A. S. (1997). Ethics of Xenotransplantation: Animal Issues, Consent and Likely Transformation of Transplant Ethics World. J. Surg 21. 975-982. Evans, R. J. (2001). Coming to Terms with Reality: Why Xenotransplantation Is a Necessity. Chapter 2. Xenotransplantation. 29-55. Scenario # 2 The cultural and moral ethics are diminishing due to changing

Out, Out. by Robert Frost Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Out, Out. by Robert Frost - Essay Example The title of the poem, â€Å"Out, Out,† is derived from a line in William Shakespeare’s play Macbeth: â€Å"Out, out, brief candle!† (Shakespeare, 1993, 5.5.23), spoken by Macbeth upon hearing the news of his wife’s death. Frost’s use of the phrase as his title seems to be ironic. In the play, Macbeth laments his wife’s passing and reflects that life is ultimately meaningless: â€Å"it is a tale/Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,/Signifying nothing† (Shakespeare, 1993, 5.5.26-28). But Frost does not agree that life has no meaning. He uses the poem as a way to record the boy’s existence, to show that even though his candle has been snuffed way too soon, his life was still significant. The poem begins just before the tragedy occurs, and sets the tone from the first line. Frost uses personification to describe the chainsaw as it â€Å"snarled and rattled in the yard† (1). This line foreshadows the upcoming accident, b ut it is important to note that Frost does not depict the tragedy as an accident—he instead frames it as a deliberate act of malice on the part of the saw.